Zhang Sanfeng and Political Struggles in the Ming Dynasty

Zhang Sanfeng and Political Struggles in the Ming Dynasty

The Biography of Hu Ying in the History of Ming states:"After Emperor Hui's death in the fire, some said he escaped. Many of the old ministers followed him, and the Emperor (Zhu Di) suspected this. In the fifth year (of Yongle), he sent Hu Ying to distribute the imperial writings, and also to search for the immortal Zhang Lata (a nickname for Zhang Sanfeng), traveling all over the country’s prefectures, counties, and villages, secretly investigating where the Jianwen Emperor was… In the twenty-first year, he returned to court and rushed to see the Emperor in Xuanfu. The Emperor had already gone to bed. Upon hearing of Hu Ying's arrival, he hastily got up and summoned him in. Hu Ying reported all he had heard. He left at the fourth drum of the night (around 1–3 a.m.). Before Hu Ying’s arrival, there were rumors that the Jianwen Emperor had jumped into the sea. The Emperor dispatched eunuchs like Zheng He to sail across the Western Ocean, and only then were his doubts dispelled, and so on.”

Hu Ying traveled across the country, under the pretense of searching for Zhang Sanfeng, but in reality was carrying out Zhu Di's secret order to observe 'public sentiment', because the Jianwen Emperor was the legitimate emperor and had the support of the people. The Yongle Emperor (Zhu Di) had seized the throne through usurpation and worried that the people's hearts were not with him. Therefore, he "sent people to proclaim the emperor's decree and investigate the sentiments of the people throughout the country."His trusted aide Hu Ying spent over ten years running around for this task.(Fan Jinmin: A Preliminary Study on the Motives Behind Zheng He’s Voyages to the Western Seas)

During the Wanli period, quite a few historians accepted the view that Zhu Di ordered Hu Ying to search for the Jianwen Emperor under the pretense of looking for Zhang Sanfeng, and that Zheng He’s voyages were also tied to searching for traces of the Jianwen Emperor.

Throughout the Ming Dynasty, beginning with the founding emperor Zhu Yuanzhang, there was great admiration for Zhang Sanfeng.Emperors Yingzong, Xianzong, and Shizong posthumously bestowed upon Zhang such Daoist titles as Zhenren ("Perfected Immortal") and Zhenjun ("True Lord"), giving him extremely high honors —he could be called the officially recognized 'living immortal' of the Ming court.

Zhu Di’s veneration for Mount Wudang was not only to give thanks to the deity Zhenwu Dadi (True Martial Great Emperor) for his protection,but also to demonstrate that he was carrying on his father's legacy.

Back then, Zhu Yuanzhang had sought out Zhang Sanfeng but failed to find him,so Zhu Di felt even more compelled to find Zhang,to prove the divine legitimacy of his rule.

In the same year that he ordered the construction of Mount Wudang, Zhu Di also issued a decree, showing respect to the mysterious Zhang Sanfeng:

“I have long admired the True Immortal, yearning to receive his teachings in person. I have sent envoys with incense and letters, respectfully visiting famous mountains to sincerely invite him. The True Immortal’s virtue is sublime, surpassing all things, his nature aligned with the Dao, mysterious and unfathomable. My own talents are mediocre and my virtue shallow, yet my sincere wish to see him remains unforgotten day and night...”

It was in this context that Zhu Di repeatedly dispatched Hu Ying to various places to search for Zhang Sanfeng’s traces.

In addition, like emperors throughout history, Zhu Di surely harbored hopes of acquiring the Daoist secrets of immortality.He once said to his ministers:

“If not taking the elixir of immortality, should I take ordinary medicine?”

However, Zhang Sanfeng was not tempted by worldly wealth and rank, and was even more unwilling to teach Daoist alchemy and other arts to those in power.

There is a record in historical texts of Zhang Sanfeng’s view toward emperors:

“Emperors have their own Dao; one should not use elixirs or cinnabar to distract rulers from their diligence in governance. Since ancient times, disasters have been caused by alchemists entering the court, becoming tools for gain.Those who ascend to true immortality will never be like Ye Fashan of the Tang or Lin Lingsu of the Song.The past serves as a warning.”

Textual Analysis

Historical documents about Zhang Sanfeng are mainly from the Ming and Qing dynasties, totaling 206 pieces.The earliest is the Record of Mount Taiyue and Mount Taihe written by Ren Ziyuan in the 6th year of Xuande (1431);the most recent are from the late Qing and early Republican periods, spanning nearly 500 years.But none of these records mention anything related to Taijiquan (Tai Chi martial arts).

Based on this evidence, we can confirm that Zhang Sanfeng was a Daoist during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties,who once built a hut and practiced cultivation in Taihe Mountain (now Mount Wudang) in Hubei.

However, neither the History of Ming nor the Record of Mount Taihe, which was compiled over many revisions,mention Zhang Sanfeng practicing martial arts.

Even in the manuscript version of The Complete Works of Zhang Sanfeng compiled in the first year of Yongzheng (1723) by Daoist Wang Xiling from Sichuan,and the revised version of The Complete Works of Zhang Sanfeng compiled in the 24th year of Daoguang (1844) by the reclusive scholar Li Hanxu from Changyi Mountain,though they claim to have seen the 14th-century Zhang Sanfeng,they also never state that he practiced martial arts or created Taijiquan.

Since in the past it was common to promote an academic idea by falsely attributing it to a deity or other esteemed figure,the theory that “Zhang Sanfeng created Taijiquan” likely originated from such practices.

In addition, historical records of Zhang Sanfeng’s travels to famous sites such as Luyi in Zhoukou, Henan; Mount Wudang in Hubei; Jintai Temple in Baoji, Shaanxi; and Gaozhen Temple in Fuquan, Guizhou,contain no descriptions of him creating, practicing, or transmitting Taijiquan.